47% of men who beat their wives do so at least 3 times per year. 3
Nearly 1 in 3 adult women experience at least 1 physical assault by a partner during adulthood. 4
Only about one-seventh of all domestic assaults come to the attention of the police. 5
Each year, an estimated 3.3 million children witness their mothers or female caretakers being abused. 6
40-60% of men who abuse women also abuse children. 7
Young women, between the ages of 16-24 in dating relationships experience the highest rate of domestic violence and sexual assault. 8
An average of 28% of high school and college students experience dating violence at some point. 9
26% of pregnant teens reported being physically abused by their boyfriends -- about half of them said the battering began or intensified after he learned of her pregnancy. 10
Requests for emergency shelter by homeless families with children increased in 68% of US cities surveyed in 1999. 11
57 % of homeless families identified domestic violence as a primary cause of homelessness. 12
Between one- and two-thirds of welfare recipients reported having suffered domestic violence at some point in their adult lives; between 15 - 32% reported current domestic victimization. 13
Black women experience intimate partner violence at a 35% higher rate than white women. 14
A battered woman who is not a legal resident, or whose immigration status depends on her partner, is isolated by cultural dynamics which may prevent her from leaving her husband or seeking assistance from the legal system. These factors contribute to the higher incidence of abuse among immigrant women. 15
While same-sex battering mirrors heterosexual battering both in type and prevalence, its victims receive fewer protections. Seven states define domestic violence in a way that excludes same-sex victims; 21 states have sodomy laws that may require same-sex victims to confess to a crime in order to prove they are in a domestic relationship. 16
1 Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report: Violence Against Women: Estimates from the Redesigned Survey (NCJ-154348) August 1995, p. 3.
2 American Psychological Association; Violence and the Family: Report of the American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force on Violence and the Family (1996), p. 10.
3 AMA Diagnostic & Treatment Guidelines on Domestic Violence, SEC: 94-677:3M:9/94 (1994).
4 American Psychological Association; Violence and the Family Report of the American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force on Violence and the Family (1996), p. 10.
5 Florida Governor's Task Force on Domestic and Sexual Violence, Florida Mortality Review Project, 1997, p. 3.
6 American Psychological Association, Violence and the Family: Report of the American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force on Violence and the Family (1996), p. 11.
7 American Psychological Association, Violence and the Family: Report of the American Psychological Association Presidential Task Force on Violence and the Family (1996), p. 80.
8 Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report: Intimate Partner Violence. May, 2000.
9 Brustin, S., Legal Response to Teen Dating Violence, Family Law Quarterly, vol. 29, no. 2, 331 (Summer 1995) (citing Levy, In Love & In Danger: a teen's guide to breaking free of an abusive relationship, 1993).
10 Brustin, S., Legal Response to Teen Dating Violence, Family Law Quarterly, vol. 29, no. 2, 333-334 (Summer 1995) (citing Worcester, A More Hidden Crime: Adolescent Battered Women, The Network News, July/Aug., National Women's Health Network 1993).
11 The United States Conference of Mayors, A Status Report on Hunger and Homelessness in America's Cities: 1999, December 1999, p39.
12 The United States Conference of Mayors, A Status Report on Hunger and Homelessness in America's Cities: 1999, December 1999, p. 94.
13 Raphael & Tolman, Trapped by Poverty, Trapped by Abuse: New Evidence Documenting the Relationship Between Domestic Violence and Welfare, p. 21 (1997).
14 Bureau of Justice Statistics Special Report: Intimate Partner Violence. May, 2000 .
15 Orloff et al., With No Place to Turn: Improving Advocacy for Battered Immigrant Women, Family Law Quarterly, vol. 29, no. 2, 313 (Summer 1995).
16 Barnes, It's Just a Quarrel', American Bar Association Journal, February 1998, p. 24.
Social Identity, Stereotypes, Prejudice and Discrimination
By Bill Kohlmeyer, MSW, LMHC
Group Identity: Us Versus Them
Think about he groups in which you are a member—possibly social organizations, your ethnicity, your nationality. When someone asks you to identify yourself, how often do you respond by mentioning these group memberships? And how much does it matter to you whether the people you associate with are members of the same group?
Social identity
Social identity refers to the way we define ourselves in terms of our group membership (Deaux, 2002). In contrast to personal identity, which can be highly individualized, social identity assumes some commonalities with others. A person’s social identity might include identifying with a religious group, a country, asocial organization, and many others. To identify with a group does not mean that we know or interact with every other member of the group. However, it does mean that we believe that we share numerous features with other members of the group.
For many people, ethnic identity and religious identity are central aspects of their social identity (Erikson, 2001). Social psychologist Henry Tajfel (1978), one of a small number of Jews who survived the Holocaust, wanted to explain the extreme violence and prejudice his religious group experienced. Tajfel’s social identity theory states that when individuals are assigned to a group, they invariably think of their group as the in-group. This occurs because they want to have a positive self-image.
Self image consists of both a personal identity and many different social identities. Tajfel argues that individuals can improve their self-images by enhancing either their personal or social identities. But he believes that the social identity is especially important. Think about how you behave when you introduce yourself to a stranger. Are you more likely to say, “Hi, I’m an ambitious, hard-working idealist.”? Or are you more likely to say, “Hi, I’m a counselor at such and such agency and teach at so and so college.”? Chances are you are more likely to tell people about the groups with which you identify.
We are continually comparing our groups (in-groups) with other groups (out-groups). In the process, we often focus more on the differences between the two groups than on their similarities. Imagine a Lakers fan and a Sonics fan talking. As these two fans talk they are less likely to discuss how much they both like basketball than to argue about the virtues of their teams. As they strive to promote their social identities, they soon lapse into self-congratulatory remarks about their own team and nasty comments about the opposing team. In short, the theme of the conversation has become, “My team is good and I am good. Your team is bad and you are bad.” And so it goes with the sexes, ethnics groups, nations, socioeconomic groups, religions, and countless other groups. These social comparisons often lead to social competition and even discrimination against groups. Thus, social identity theory helps explain prejudice and conflict between groups.
Stereotyping
At the very root of prejudice is a stereotype, a generalization about a group’s characteristics that does not consider any variations from one individual to the next (Kite, 2001). These are fixed, conventional ideas about groups of people or schemas about personalities based on too little information or one fixed trait that can lead to prejudice. We are trying to make sense of the world around us by categorizing and evaluating groups. This is an essential attribution process in the development of a self-identity ingrained in our consciousness from childhood.
Think about your image of a dedicated accountant. Most of us would probably describe such a person as quiet, boring, unsociable, and so on. Rarely would we come up with a mental image of this person as extraverted, the life of the party, or artistic. But characterizing all accountants as introverts is a clear example of a stereotype. Some accountants may be reserved, but at least some are likely to be very outgoing and sociable.
Researchers have found that we are less likely to detect variations among individuals who belong to “other” groups than among individuals who belong to “our” group. For example, studies of eyewitness identification have found that Whites tend to stereotype African Americans more than other Whites during eyewitness identification (Brigham, 1986). What might be occurring is the tendency to view members of one’s own group as having heterogeneous and desirable qualities and to view the members of other groups as having homogeneous and undesirable qualities (Slattery, 2004).
Although stereotyping can be harmful, we should keep in mind that all people stereotype. People use categories or schemas, when thinking about groups, group affiliation and individuals from those groups (Fiske, 1998; Steele 1996). Thus we might engage in stereotyping without being aware of it. The main problem is not that we use these categories but that we limit our perception of others to the rough outlines of the schema; we do not add specific information about an individual’s characteristics. In addition, we may develop biases against whole groups of people (Klein & Snyder 2003).
Emotional arousal can be implicated in increased stereotyping. Anger can especially intensify stereotyping by producing irrational and biased judgments of people (Ellis, 1962).
Damage of stereotypes on the beholder:
The depth and accuracy of our perception of others is limited.
The depth and breadth of our curiosity and understanding becomes limited.
The possibility and range of our potential pool of friendships becomes limited.
We may internalize a stereotype leading to lowered self-esteem.
There can become an internalized sense of separation and isolation from others based in the inherent defensiveness of “us” and “them” thinking.
The cognitive structures of stereotyping can lead directly to the emotional content of Prejudice.
PrejudiceUnderstanding the antagonism that develops between groups requires knowledge about prejudice and the stereotyping and discrimination that often accompany it (Brammer 2004). Like most people, you probably do not consider yourself as prejudiced. But, in fact, each of us has prejudices. Prejudice is an unjustified negative attitude toward an individual based on the individual’s membership in a group. It is a preconceived opinion, feeling, or attitude either positive or negative that is formed without adequate information. Strongest negative emotions are held for groups rather than individuals. Gordon Allport in his book The Nature of Prejudice writes: “irritation or anger is customarily felt toward individuals only, whereas true hatred may be felt toward a whole class of people.”
Prejudice, as a worldwide phenomenon (Baker, 2001), has seen many eruptions of hatred in human history. The Taliban were so prejudiced against women that they tried to make them invisible. Serbs were so prejudiced against Bosnians that they pursued a policy of “ethnic cleansing”. Hutus in Rwanda were so prejudiced against Tutsis that they went on a murderous rampage, hacking off their arms and legs with machetes. European Americans were so prejudiced against the Native Americans that they systematically robbed them of their property and self-respect, killed them, and herded the survivors like animals onto reservations. When Africans were brought to America as slaves they were considered property and treated inhumanely. In fact, virtually every social group, including gays, lesbians, old, young, disabled, addicted, have been the victim of prejudice at one time or another.
Why do people develop prejudice? Among the reasons given by social psychologists are the following (Monteith, 2000):
Individual personality: Some years ago social psychologist Theodor Adorno and his colleagues (1950) described the Authoritarian Personality typified by strict adherence to conventional ways of behaving, aggression against people who violate conventional norms, rigid thinking, and exaggerated submission to authority. He believed that individuals with an authoritarian personality are likely to be prejudiced. However, not all individuals who harbor prejudice have this authoritarian personality.
Competition between groups: Feelings of hostility and prejudice can develop when a society does not have enough jobs, land, power, status or any number of other material or social resources to go around. Given the historical distribution of resources in a particular society, certain groups may regularly be involved in competing with each other and this is more likely to develop prejudice toward each other. For instance, immigrants often compete with established low-income members of a society for jobs, leading to persistent conflict between the two groups.
Motivation to enhance self-esteem: As Henry Tajfel (1978) stated, individuals derive a sense of self esteem through their identification as members of a particular group and, to the extent that their group is viewed more favorably than other groups, their self-esteem will be further enhanced. In this view, prejudice against another group lead to a positive social identity and higher self-esteem.
Cognitive processes and categorization: Human beings are somewhat limited in their capacity for careful and thorough thoughtful analysis (Allport, 1954). The social environment is extremely complex and makes many demands on our limited information processing capacity, which can produce an unfortunate consequence: simplification of the social environment through categorization and stereotyping. The Theory of Cognitive Dissonance (Festinger, 1954) would tell us that it is easier to process social information that is consistent with our prejudices than to go through the process of challenging beliefs and changing attitudes. Once the stereotype is in place, prejudice is often not far behind.
Cultural learning: Families, friends, traditional norms, and institutional patterns of discrimination provide plenty of opportunities for individuals to be exposed to prejudice of others. There may be an assumption of dissimilarity in which we are more apt to be encouraged at a young age like people who share our values and attitudes. There may even be an assumption that people of different races and ethnic origins probably have different core values. In this manner, others’ prejudiced belief systems can be easily incorporated into our own world view. Children often show prejudice before they even have the cognitive abilities or social opportunities to develop their own attitudes.
Discrimination
Having a stereotype does not mean that you have to act on it. But if you do act on your prejudices, you may be guilty of discrimination, an unjustified negative or harmful action toward a member of a group simply because the person belongs to that group. Discrimination results when negative emotional reactions resulting from prejudice are translated into behavior.
Early research on discrimination focused on overt forms of discrimination in which the target person or group, the action and the intention of the actor were clear and identifiable. Overt discrimination is the outcome of old-fashioned racism or sexism. The actor tries to maintain self-esteem by using the power and control of being a member of a particular group to abuse others and treat them unfairly.
Overt discrimination is no longer acceptable in mainstream American society. Civil rights legislation and changing attitudes expressed widely in the popular media have made it “politically incorrect” to publicly discriminate. But more subtle forms of racism and sexism have appeared, described by such terms as symbolic racism, aversive racism, ambivalent sexism, and modern sexism (Blair, 2001). They involve negative feelings about minority groups, but not traditional stereotypes. Symbolic racism, for example, assumes that, because discrimination is no longer acceptable, it must not exist; any difficulties that individuals in minority groups face are their own fault. It encompasses the ideas that the target minority groups are pushing to hard and too fast for equality, are making unfair demands, and are getting undeserved special attention, such as favoritism on job hiring and college admissions (Taylor & others, 2003). This subtler form of discrimination is covert rather than overt. It is unconscious rather than conscious and, as such, is easily denied (Monteith, 2001).
Coping with Prejudice
The development of Empathy is an essential adult developmental stage. The use of role reversals may help us to experience the pain of discrimination and develop sensitivity and mindfulness. Remembering that, if it hurt us, it might be painful to others as well can build empathetic responses.
Inter group contact can be effective if it is between groups with similar socioeconomic backgrounds is informal and prolonged. The more intimate the contact the more effective it is.
Comply with the law. Blow the whistle if you’ve been discriminated against.
Self examination. Look into our hearts. Attribute behaviors to individuals and not groups. Separate the person from the behavior.
Improve your own self esteem. Develop your own emotional awareness, manage your emotions and learn to read other’s emotions more accurately. Become a better manager of your anger and be wiling to explore the cause of your feelings. “No one can make you feel inferior without your consent” (Eleanor Roosevelt).
Participate in cooperative tasks. Working together to achieve a mutually beneficial goal can bring groups together.
References
Adorno, TW (1950). The authoritarian personality. New York: Harper and Row.
Allport, G. (1954). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison –Wesley.
Baker, N.L. (2001) Prejudice. In J. Worell (Ed.) Encyclopedia of gender and women. San Diego, CA: Academic Press
Brammer, R. (2004) Counseling diverse populations. Belmont, CA Brooks/Cole.
Brigham, J.C. (1986) Race and eyewitness identifications. In S. Worschel &W.G. Austin (Eds.) Psychology of Intergroup relations. Chicago: Nelson-Hall
Deaux, K. (2001). Social identity. In J. Worell (Ed.) Encyclopedia of gender and women. San Diego: Academic Press.
Ellis, A. (1962). Reason and emotion in psychotherapy. New York, NY: Lyle-Stuart.
Erikson, T.H. (2001) Ethnic identity, national identity, and Intergroup conflict: The significance of personal experiences. In R.D. Ashmore (Ed.) Social identity, intergroup conflict and conflict resolution. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Festinger, L. (1954). Theory of social comparison processes. Evanston, Il: Rowe-Peterson.
Fiske, S. T. (1998). Stereotyping, prejudice and discrimination. In D. T. Gilbert (Ed), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 2) New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
Kite, M. (2001). Gender stereotypes. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Klein, O. & Snyder, M. (2003) Stereotypes and behavioral confirmation from interpersonal to intergroup perspectives. In M. P. Zanna (Ed) Advances in experimental social psychology, (Vol 35): San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
Monteith, M. J. (2000). Prejudice. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Slattery, J.M. (2004). Counseling diverse clients. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole.
Steele, C.M. (1996, August). A burden of suspicion: the role of stereotyping in shaping intellectual identity. Paper presented at the meeting of American Psychological Association, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Tajfel, H. (1978). The achievement of group differentiation. In H. Tajfel (Ed), Differentiation between social groups. London: Academic Press.
SEXISM, RACISM, HOMOPHOBIA FIGHTING BACK:
14 STEPS TO COMBATING RACISM, SEXISM AND HOMOPHOBIA
Adapted By Dr. Anthony D. Enos, Th.D., Ph.D., C.C.P., C.C.D.V.C.
It's good to be against racism, sexism and homophobia, but unless you do something to deal with these problems you're part of the problem! Here are some suggestions on how you can start fighting back against hate RIGHT NOW!
CHECK YOUR HEAD WATCH YOUR MOUTH "Colored folk." "Those types." "Your people." We all use terms that are offensive and demeaning to groups of people. We throw around loaded terms like "race" without really thinking about what we mean or how valid they are. A big part of being against hate is being big enough to look at how you think and what you say. Because some terms and phrases are demeaning to people, and don't make you look very positive when you use them, either! Try to start by taking a good look at the way you see, think, experience and relate to others. Try to appreciate the kinds of privileges your skin color, your gender, your sexual orientation and/or your class let you enjoy, maybe without you ever really thinking about it.
BIGOTED JOKES ARE NEITHER FUNNY NOR RESPECTFUL: Racist, sexist and homophobic jokes aren't harmless fun. They reinforce stereotypes about groups of people that have been discriminated against and treated unfairly. These jokes just reinforce the feeling that their targets are not included in "normal" society. That's called harassment. Don't tell racist, sexist or homophobic jokes and call other people on it when they do.
DON'T DENY DIFFERENCES, BUT DON'T EXAGGERATE THEM, EITHER: "When I look at you I don't see your color. You're just another person like I am." It's a nice thought, but people ARE different from each other and for a lot of people this is something to he treasured. If you deny what is important to them about themselves, you can hurt them without intending to, while underlining your status and standards as "normal." But don't go too far in the other direction, like blurting out "where did you come from?" the minute you meet someone a little different from you. That can exaggerate differences and inflate exclusion of people. Try to keep things in perspective.
LEARN IN ORDER TO CHANGE YOUR INCORRECT CORE BELIEFS: Prejudice is all in your head. Take some classes or read some hooks or articles on the history of race relations or feminism or the gay rights movement. Learn another language. You'd be amazed at how much this changes how you see people and relate to them! By improving your knowledge of immigration, multiculturalism, racism, sexism, and homophobia, or by learning how to communicate better with people from other cultures, you improve yourself and make yourself a better fighter in the struggle against hate.
EACH ONE, TEACH ONE, SO WATCH WHAT YOU'RE TEACHING: Younger kids can really look up to you and imitate you. If you show them that being around different kinds of people is natural and normal and desirable, they will accept that as their world, too. Read them stories with positive role models of different backgrounds. Introduce them to different kinds of foods, music, dance, and art. And talk TO them, not AT them!
DON'T LET IT GO: Racist, sexist and homophobic actions need to he confronted, or else you're saying that it's ok. Sometimes direct confrontation is what's needed. But usually in day-to-day life, talking to the offending person in private, one-on-one and with respect will get more positive results. Use your head to decide what style of confrontation is needed for any situation.
IF SOMETHING HAPPENS, DON'T STAY SILENT, LEARN HOW TO SPEAK UP CORRECTLY: If something had happens to you, tell your friends. Tell your family. Tell your classmates. Tell your co-workers. Tell your teachers. Tell your boss. Tell as many people as you can what happened. Maybe the same thing has happened to them, or maybe they can help you or just back you up. If you find out that something bad has happened to someone you know, let them know that you are there for them. Don't act on their behalf. Let them decide what they want people to do and let them tell you how you can help, but he sure that they know that you want to help.
IF YOU'RE AGAINST HATE, SHOW IT BY LIVING IT: Wear an anti-racist, anti-sexist or anti-homophobic button, patch or t-shirt. Put up stickers or posters against prejudice. This tells everyone you see that you're committed to a hate-free world without you having to say a word. It also lets racists, sexists, homophobes and other bigots know that they're not welcome in.
PUT YOURSELF IN SOMEONE ELSE'S SHOES: Try to bridge differences by being open-minded. Challenge your way of thinking by becoming involved in ethnic organizations, immigrant support groups, or anti-racist groups like ARA (to find out how to join or start a chapter go to: www.aranet.org). Volunteer with a class teaching English as a Second Language. There are a million things you can do to learn more about the world of people a little different from you.
YOUR ACTIONS SPEAK LOUDER THAN YOUR WORDS, SO DO SOMETHING: Put your anti-racist, anti-sexist, anti-homophobic beliefs into practice. Attend activities, actions and demonstrations in support of anti-racist, anti-sexist and anti-homophobic issues. Or organize your own. If you get involved, you not only support others morally in the fight against hate, you send a clear message that your community is committed to fighting prejudice.
TRAVEL: The world is a big place, so go experience it! Live in other places with other people different from you and from the people you've known. You'll learn more about yourself and how things work than if you stayed in your little world of the safe and familiar.
MAKE NEW FRIENDS: Society tries to keep us from really getting to know people that are different from us; don't let it! Make an effort to make friends with people who look different than you, talk different than you, or act different than you. You have nothing to lose and everything to gain.
MAKE YOUR MONEY TALK: Never underestimate the power of the dollar. Boycott places that are known to be racist, sexist or homophobic. Encourage other people to do the same thing. Above all, tell the place you're boycotting why you aren't giving them your money; otherwise they may never get the message! While you're at it, use your money' to make your community a better place. Don't be shy about donating to or raising money for causes you support that fights racism, sexism and homophobia or promote the kind of fun and diverse society you want to live in.
LET THE WHOLE WORLD KNOW: You stand up against racism and sexism and homophobia. Challenge racists. Confront sexists. Oppose homophobes. Tell people. Write a letter to the paper. Make posters and put them up. Record a song. Let everyone know where you stand. Add your voice to the thousands of others who fight for justice and diversity and harmony and fun.
Together
We Will
Win!